1.Introduction
Sand Stones : Sandstones are clastic type of sedimentary rocks. Sandstones are quite hard and have great compressive strength. In India, It is available in many colors and shades and streaks, in various regions of India like Gwaliar, Shivpuri, Karuli, Bharatpur, Lalitpur, Dholpur, Kota, Bundi, Bhilwara, Nagpur, Kishangarh and Jodhpur. Interestingly, certain colors of sandstone may be strongly identified with certain regions. These are available in various finishes like calibrated, honed, polished, sandblasted, Natural & flamed. Sandstones are exported in safe exclusive wooden packing in the form of tiles, slabs, mosaics & cobbles. Though sandstones can be used anywhere yet it’s main applications are in floorings, wall cladding, paving (cobbles), backslashes, Shower Walls, Pool Surrounds, Living Room Floors, Entryways & Fireplaces etc.
Monday, January 7, 2008
SANDSTONE
Sandstone
“Fine Touch n feel of Elegance with Saniya Impex”
Sandstone is made of tiny grains of quartz, minerals and feldspar. It is widely used from times of immemorial for residential and commercial construction and decorative purposes. Sandstone is widely used for decorative purposes due to its natural look. It is available in different shades of pink, beige, grey, brown, black etc. Sandstone is a sedimentary rock formed by its own. Most of the sandstone is formed in oceans, lakes and rivers where tiny bits of rock and dirt settle to the bottom. After thousands of years, these layers of sand get buried under tons of more sand and dirt until it is turned into solid rock. The reddish shade of sand stone is due to presence of iron oxides and the greenish shade is due to presence of glaconite. Sandstone when cemented by silica has great strength, making it suitable for structural uses. Sandstone will undergo though various processes like Dressing Cutting/sawing, Surface grinding and polishing and Edge-cutting-trimming into order to make it suitable for final use.
Types of Sandstones
“Widely used for interior and exterior décor with a natural look”
Sand Stone Tiles: It is used for flooring and many types of artifacts in household purpose.
Sandstone Slabs: The sandstone slabs comes in various forms like square, rectangular, round, and oval. The size of the slabs are varies from normal random size of 1'x1' to 10Ft x 2Ft. The thickness supplied ranges from 1 to 10cm or above. These are useful in garden, kitchen, living room, walls, bathroom, etc.
Sandstone cobbles: Sandstone cobble stones are smaller than a boulder and larger than a pebble. Cobbles are fireproof. The sizes in which cobblestones are available are 10x10x8cm, 20x10x8cm, 14x14x6cm, 14x14x8cm, 14x20x8cm. They are used in architectural and decorative purposes.
Sandstone Pebbles: The sandstone pebbles are either round or square in shape. They vary in size from 25-75 mm (2"), 75-125 mm (4") and 125-175 (6") mm. These pebbles are used in fountains, posh lounges, open air theaters, aquaria, parks, homes décor, artificial ponds etc.
Sandstone blocks: They are used to create the monuments and statues from times of immemorial.
Sandstone Strips: These are made in different shapes and sizes by cutting the sandstone as per requirement. They used to create attractive wall designs by using colored strips.
Sandstone bricks: These are used for flooring and walls.
Uses of Sandstones
“Used for architectural purposes and artifacts from times of immemorial”
Flooring
Sandstone used to make your floor to look opulent. It is available in many shades so that you can select the sandstone color matching with your walls and furniture. Sandstone creates a warm ambience adding the sense of completeness in a décor. Flooring can be used using the large sandstone slabs or by using the small tiles. Sandstone flooring adds an exquisite look to your flooring.
Garden
Sand stone is used to add feather in garden’s décor by sandstone furniture, lamps, urns, tables etc.
Garden furniture
Sandstone is best for garden furniture, statues, garden urns, pitchers, miniatures etc.
Garden StatueSandstone is used to make different types of statues. It includes the statues of human, animals, birds, angels etc.
Garden Lamps Sandstone is used to make garden lamps that look nice when electric bulbs put inside them light up.
Garden TablesSandstone is used to make garden tables of various sizes.
Walls
Sandstone is used to raise the walls. It offers the perfect medium for making the walls. Most of the monuments have sandstone walls. It offers both strength and beauty to the wall. The bricks, slabs, blocks of sandstone are used for making the wall. It givers an antique look to the wall.
Pavement
Sandstone blocks, tiles, bricks are used for paving floors and walls. The sandstone pavements are used for residential and commercial purposes.
Landscaping
Sandstone is widely used for landscaping purpose. The stone has natural look. It can cut and shaped as per the requirement. The concept of landscaping offers environmental benefits like trees and vegetation control erosion etc.
Handicrafts
Sandstone is used to prepare a number of attractive handicraft items. It is used to make photo frames, furniture, jewelry boxes, flower case etc. Its color and look has been ideal choice for monuments and various structures. Candle stands of various shapes and colors.
Sandstone Quarries
Sandstone quarries are found in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, few locations in - Gujarat, Orrisa, Karnatka, Tamil Nadu, Andaman and Nicobar and many more places. Indian Sandstone
Properties
Chemical Properties Sandstone has similar chemical composition as of sand. It essentially contains quartz. The cementing materials that bind the sand into a rock are composed of silica, calcium carbonate, or iron oxide. Sand stones are highly resistant to acids, alkalis and thermal impact. Their insolubility in acids and alkalis is about 97%, The percentage of chemicals varies between:
Lime(CaO) ---------------- 0.8% to 0.9% Soda(Na2O) & Potash (Kro) -- 1.0% to 1.2% SiO2 ------------------93-94%Alumina(Al2O3) -------------1.4 to 1.5%Iron(Fe2O3) ----1.5%-1.6%Loss On Ignition(LOI) ------- 1.0% to 1.2%Magnesia(MgO) --------------------0.2 to 0.25%
Physical Properties
Sandstone has hardness of 6 to 7 on Moh's Scale Density 2.32 to 2.42 Kg/m3. The capacity of water absorption is not more than 1.0%. The colors ranges from Sandstone are available in many colors – red, green, yellow, pink, gray and white. The color varies due to variation change in constituents and the binding material. The sandstone comprises of Quartz grains, Feldspar grains and Rock fragment grains. Due to variation in these constituents the shape and color of sandstone varies.
Sandstone Care
Sandstone when handled with care it lasts for years. It is advised to keep sandstone clean and free from scratches. Never use the cleaner that has acid or lemon as it may damage the surface and erode the polish. Cleaner should be neutral. So do not use the bathroom cleaner, grout clear or any cleaner have acid. Never place any hot objects on them directly. While using vacuum cleaner, care should be taken to avoid any kind of scratch.
Sandstone Quarry
Sandstone Care
Sandstone Handicrafts
Resources
Sandstone Chemical Properties
Sandstone Physical Properties
Sandstone Composition
Sandstone Composition
Sandstone Textures
Sandstone Edges
Varieties of Sandstone
“Fine Touch n feel of Elegance with Saniya Impex”
Sandstone is made of tiny grains of quartz, minerals and feldspar. It is widely used from times of immemorial for residential and commercial construction and decorative purposes. Sandstone is widely used for decorative purposes due to its natural look. It is available in different shades of pink, beige, grey, brown, black etc. Sandstone is a sedimentary rock formed by its own. Most of the sandstone is formed in oceans, lakes and rivers where tiny bits of rock and dirt settle to the bottom. After thousands of years, these layers of sand get buried under tons of more sand and dirt until it is turned into solid rock. The reddish shade of sand stone is due to presence of iron oxides and the greenish shade is due to presence of glaconite. Sandstone when cemented by silica has great strength, making it suitable for structural uses. Sandstone will undergo though various processes like Dressing Cutting/sawing, Surface grinding and polishing and Edge-cutting-trimming into order to make it suitable for final use.
Types of Sandstones
“Widely used for interior and exterior décor with a natural look”
Sand Stone Tiles: It is used for flooring and many types of artifacts in household purpose.
Sandstone Slabs: The sandstone slabs comes in various forms like square, rectangular, round, and oval. The size of the slabs are varies from normal random size of 1'x1' to 10Ft x 2Ft. The thickness supplied ranges from 1 to 10cm or above. These are useful in garden, kitchen, living room, walls, bathroom, etc.
Sandstone cobbles: Sandstone cobble stones are smaller than a boulder and larger than a pebble. Cobbles are fireproof. The sizes in which cobblestones are available are 10x10x8cm, 20x10x8cm, 14x14x6cm, 14x14x8cm, 14x20x8cm. They are used in architectural and decorative purposes.
Sandstone Pebbles: The sandstone pebbles are either round or square in shape. They vary in size from 25-75 mm (2"), 75-125 mm (4") and 125-175 (6") mm. These pebbles are used in fountains, posh lounges, open air theaters, aquaria, parks, homes décor, artificial ponds etc.
Sandstone blocks: They are used to create the monuments and statues from times of immemorial.
Sandstone Strips: These are made in different shapes and sizes by cutting the sandstone as per requirement. They used to create attractive wall designs by using colored strips.
Sandstone bricks: These are used for flooring and walls.
Uses of Sandstones
“Used for architectural purposes and artifacts from times of immemorial”
Flooring
Sandstone used to make your floor to look opulent. It is available in many shades so that you can select the sandstone color matching with your walls and furniture. Sandstone creates a warm ambience adding the sense of completeness in a décor. Flooring can be used using the large sandstone slabs or by using the small tiles. Sandstone flooring adds an exquisite look to your flooring.
Garden
Sand stone is used to add feather in garden’s décor by sandstone furniture, lamps, urns, tables etc.
Garden furniture
Sandstone is best for garden furniture, statues, garden urns, pitchers, miniatures etc.
Garden StatueSandstone is used to make different types of statues. It includes the statues of human, animals, birds, angels etc.
Garden Lamps Sandstone is used to make garden lamps that look nice when electric bulbs put inside them light up.
Garden TablesSandstone is used to make garden tables of various sizes.
Walls
Sandstone is used to raise the walls. It offers the perfect medium for making the walls. Most of the monuments have sandstone walls. It offers both strength and beauty to the wall. The bricks, slabs, blocks of sandstone are used for making the wall. It givers an antique look to the wall.
Pavement
Sandstone blocks, tiles, bricks are used for paving floors and walls. The sandstone pavements are used for residential and commercial purposes.
Landscaping
Sandstone is widely used for landscaping purpose. The stone has natural look. It can cut and shaped as per the requirement. The concept of landscaping offers environmental benefits like trees and vegetation control erosion etc.
Handicrafts
Sandstone is used to prepare a number of attractive handicraft items. It is used to make photo frames, furniture, jewelry boxes, flower case etc. Its color and look has been ideal choice for monuments and various structures. Candle stands of various shapes and colors.
Sandstone Quarries
Sandstone quarries are found in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, few locations in - Gujarat, Orrisa, Karnatka, Tamil Nadu, Andaman and Nicobar and many more places. Indian Sandstone
Properties
Chemical Properties Sandstone has similar chemical composition as of sand. It essentially contains quartz. The cementing materials that bind the sand into a rock are composed of silica, calcium carbonate, or iron oxide. Sand stones are highly resistant to acids, alkalis and thermal impact. Their insolubility in acids and alkalis is about 97%, The percentage of chemicals varies between:
Lime(CaO) ---------------- 0.8% to 0.9% Soda(Na2O) & Potash (Kro) -- 1.0% to 1.2% SiO2 ------------------93-94%Alumina(Al2O3) -------------1.4 to 1.5%Iron(Fe2O3) ----1.5%-1.6%Loss On Ignition(LOI) ------- 1.0% to 1.2%Magnesia(MgO) --------------------0.2 to 0.25%
Physical Properties
Sandstone has hardness of 6 to 7 on Moh's Scale Density 2.32 to 2.42 Kg/m3. The capacity of water absorption is not more than 1.0%. The colors ranges from Sandstone are available in many colors – red, green, yellow, pink, gray and white. The color varies due to variation change in constituents and the binding material. The sandstone comprises of Quartz grains, Feldspar grains and Rock fragment grains. Due to variation in these constituents the shape and color of sandstone varies.
Sandstone Care
Sandstone when handled with care it lasts for years. It is advised to keep sandstone clean and free from scratches. Never use the cleaner that has acid or lemon as it may damage the surface and erode the polish. Cleaner should be neutral. So do not use the bathroom cleaner, grout clear or any cleaner have acid. Never place any hot objects on them directly. While using vacuum cleaner, care should be taken to avoid any kind of scratch.
Sandstone Quarry
Sandstone Care
Sandstone Handicrafts
Resources
Sandstone Chemical Properties
Sandstone Physical Properties
Sandstone Composition
Sandstone Composition
Sandstone Textures
Sandstone Edges
Varieties of Sandstone
SANDSTONE APPLICATION
3. Sandstone Application
• About Sandstone• Garden Sandstone• Sandstone Flooring
• Sandstone Landscaping• Sandstone Pavement• Sandstone Wall
• About Sandstone• Garden Sandstone• Sandstone Flooring
• Sandstone Landscaping• Sandstone Pavement• Sandstone Wall
SANDSTONE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Sandstone Chemical Properties
The chemical constitution of sandstone is the same as that of sand, the rock is thus composed essentially of quartz. The natural cementing material that binds the sand together as rock is usually composed of silica, calcium carbonate, or iron oxide. Chemically sandstone is very resistant Mono-Mineralic rock, with silica as the principal. The percentage of each constituents is as follows:SiO2 93-94%Iron (Fe2O3) 1.5%-1.6% Alumina (Al2O3) 1.4 to 1.5% Soda (Na2O) & Potash (Kro) 1.0% to 1.2% Lime (CaO) 0.8% to 0.9% Magnesia (MgO) 0.2 to 0.25% Loss On Ignition (LOI) 1.0% to 1.2%They are highly resistant to acids, alkalis and thermal impact
The chemical constitution of sandstone is the same as that of sand, the rock is thus composed essentially of quartz. The natural cementing material that binds the sand together as rock is usually composed of silica, calcium carbonate, or iron oxide. Chemically sandstone is very resistant Mono-Mineralic rock, with silica as the principal. The percentage of each constituents is as follows:SiO2 93-94%Iron (Fe2O3) 1.5%-1.6% Alumina (Al2O3) 1.4 to 1.5% Soda (Na2O) & Potash (Kro) 1.0% to 1.2% Lime (CaO) 0.8% to 0.9% Magnesia (MgO) 0.2 to 0.25% Loss On Ignition (LOI) 1.0% to 1.2%They are highly resistant to acids, alkalis and thermal impact
PEROLOGY
PETROLOGY:
The word petrology is derived from word petroleum.
Petrology is the department of science which is concerned with mineralogical & chemical compositions of rocks with their classification.
Rocks are classified mainly three groups:
· Sedimentary Rocks
· Metamorphic Rocks
· Igneous Rocks
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:
Sedimentary rocks are formed from overburden pressure as particles of sediments are deposited out of air, ice or water flows carrying the particles in suspension. As the sediment deposition builds up, the overburden pressure (Lithostatic pressure) squeezes the sediments into layered solids. This rock formation process is known as Lithification (rock formation).
These rocks are further classified in three categories. This classification is based on three main ways of formation of sedimentary rocks:
(1) Clastic / Terrigenous / Detrital / fragmental sedimentary rocks: Clastic means broken or fragmented. Clastic rocks are composed of broken up pieces of pre-existing rocks and minerals. We can further identify these rocks based on the size of the fragments that they are composed.
PARTICLE SIZE
SEDIMENT
ROCK
Over 256 mm (10")
Boulder
Conglomerate or breccia
2 to 256mm(0.08-10")
Gravel
Conglomerate or breccia
1/16 to 2mm
Sand
Sandstone
1/256-1/16mm
Silt
Siltstone*
Less than 1/256mm
Clay
Claystone*
*also known as mudstone
(2) Biological / Bioclastic: sedimentary rocks: These sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition of result of some biogenic activities. Coals , Cherts and shell limestone are examples of biological sedimentary rocks.
(3) Chemical sedimentary rocks : These rocks are formed by deposition of chemicals, which are generally precipitated from solutions. These rocks however, form from a water solution, and not from molten rock. Various salts (rock salt and gypsum), Dolostone, limestones are few examples of chemical sedimentary rocks. Chemical sedimentation involves water and therefore the depositional environments will be most often found near or under water.
Composition of sedimentary rocks :
Sedimentary rocks are composed of mainly silica (quartz), feldspars, amphiboles and clay material.
Note:
We are fortunate that in earth’s atmosphere, we have low levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) due to limestones and dolomite sedimentary rocks. This is a fact that most of carbon (petroleum and other hydrocarbons) on earth is trapped in limestone’s and dolomite’s layers. So less free carbon is available to react with oxygen. In this way we have low percentage of co2 on earth’s atmosphere. Making existence of life on earth possible.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS:
In a simple definition we can say that metamorphic rocks are formed from transformation of one type of natural stones to another type of natural stones through mix of heat, pressure and minerals.
These changes can be either: - Crystalline formation or/and Texture change or/and colour changeBefore understanding the metamorphic rocks, it is necessary to understand METAMORPHISM.
The word petrology is derived from word petroleum.
Petrology is the department of science which is concerned with mineralogical & chemical compositions of rocks with their classification.
Rocks are classified mainly three groups:
· Sedimentary Rocks
· Metamorphic Rocks
· Igneous Rocks
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:
Sedimentary rocks are formed from overburden pressure as particles of sediments are deposited out of air, ice or water flows carrying the particles in suspension. As the sediment deposition builds up, the overburden pressure (Lithostatic pressure) squeezes the sediments into layered solids. This rock formation process is known as Lithification (rock formation).
These rocks are further classified in three categories. This classification is based on three main ways of formation of sedimentary rocks:
(1) Clastic / Terrigenous / Detrital / fragmental sedimentary rocks: Clastic means broken or fragmented. Clastic rocks are composed of broken up pieces of pre-existing rocks and minerals. We can further identify these rocks based on the size of the fragments that they are composed.
PARTICLE SIZE
SEDIMENT
ROCK
Over 256 mm (10")
Boulder
Conglomerate or breccia
2 to 256mm(0.08-10")
Gravel
Conglomerate or breccia
1/16 to 2mm
Sand
Sandstone
1/256-1/16mm
Silt
Siltstone*
Less than 1/256mm
Clay
Claystone*
*also known as mudstone
(2) Biological / Bioclastic: sedimentary rocks: These sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition of result of some biogenic activities. Coals , Cherts and shell limestone are examples of biological sedimentary rocks.
(3) Chemical sedimentary rocks : These rocks are formed by deposition of chemicals, which are generally precipitated from solutions. These rocks however, form from a water solution, and not from molten rock. Various salts (rock salt and gypsum), Dolostone, limestones are few examples of chemical sedimentary rocks. Chemical sedimentation involves water and therefore the depositional environments will be most often found near or under water.
Composition of sedimentary rocks :
Sedimentary rocks are composed of mainly silica (quartz), feldspars, amphiboles and clay material.
Note:
We are fortunate that in earth’s atmosphere, we have low levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) due to limestones and dolomite sedimentary rocks. This is a fact that most of carbon (petroleum and other hydrocarbons) on earth is trapped in limestone’s and dolomite’s layers. So less free carbon is available to react with oxygen. In this way we have low percentage of co2 on earth’s atmosphere. Making existence of life on earth possible.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS:
In a simple definition we can say that metamorphic rocks are formed from transformation of one type of natural stones to another type of natural stones through mix of heat, pressure and minerals.
These changes can be either: - Crystalline formation or/and Texture change or/and colour changeBefore understanding the metamorphic rocks, it is necessary to understand METAMORPHISM.
METAMORPHISM
METAMORPHISM:
The term metamorphic is derived from the Latin term meaning, "change of form”. It can be defined as mineralogical, chemical & crystallographic changes in a solid-state rock, in response to new conditions of pressure & or temperature & or introduction of fluids, causing the existing rocks minerals to recrystalize. They may even become different minerals all together. It is important to realize that the rock remains in its solid state. Once rock minerals are melted, and then recrystallize, the new material will be igneous. Temperature change can range from 100 c to 900 c.
METAMORPHISM can be of four types:
· Regional metamorphism:
This type of metamorphism occurs in broad areas of earth’s crust. Regional metamorphism deforms the rocks strongly. This type of metamorphism is further classified in two categories Barrovian or Buchan type metamorphism depending upon temperature and pressure gradients.
· Impact metamorphism :
This type pf metamorphism occurs in ultrahigh pressures & low temperature which are the result of collision of a meteorite or extraterrestrial object or during an extremely violent volcanic eruption.
· Contact(thermal) metamorphism :
This occurs typically around igneous intrusive rocks. As a result of the temperature increase caused by igneous body itself. Magma fluids coming from the intrusive rock may also take part in contact metamorphism. Contact metamorphic rocks are known as hornfels and usually are fine grained.
· Hydrothermal metamorphism :
Hydrothermal metamorphism is the result of the interaction of a rock with high temperature fluid of distinct composition. This metamorphism results from reaction between protolith (original rock before transformation) & fluid. This kind of metamorphism is responsible for many metal deposits on earth.
We have studied metamorphism now we will be able to define metamorphism rocks more systematically.
Metamorphic Rocks results from mineralogical and structural adjustments of solid rocks to physical and chemical conditions differing from those under which the rocks originally formed. Temperature and pressure are important factor in the formation of metamorphic rocks.
Classification of Metamorphic Rocks:
Metamorphic rocks can be subdivided into foliated and non-foliated types. This is determined by the presence of minerals that are aligned parallel to each other. This results in a layered appearance. A non-foliated metamorphic rock generally consists of equal dimensional grains.
A rock can also be identified by its metamorphic grade. This is simply a description of the overall intensity of metamorphism the rock was subjected to. What this implies is that a low-grade metamorphic rock shows textural or mineralogic evidence of having been subjected to low pressures and/or temperatures.
Metamorphisms produced with increasing pressure and or temperature is known as PROGRADE METAMORPHISM. Conversely decreasing temperature and or pressure characterize RETROGRADE METAMORPHISM.
Slates, marbles & Quartzite are example of metamorphic rocks.
IGNEOUS ROCKS:
Igneous rocks are formed from solidification of molten magma erupted through the mantle or crust of earth. As this magma in earth is less dense then surrounding solid rocks, it rises up towards surface. This lava has two options depending upon it’s surrounding conditions either it may erupt at the surface from the volcano’s mouth or it may settle within the earth’s crust. This classifies the types of igneous rocks.
1. Intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks are the rocks, which results due to solidification of lava deep within earth.
2. Extrusive or volcanic rocksare the rocks, which results due to solidification or crystallization of lava on the outer surface of earth.
These two types of igneous rocks can be identified by visualizing them Since slow cooking of “intrusive rocks” promote the growth of mineral beds which can be identified without microscope. While in extrusive igneous rocks these minerals cannot be seen by naked eye. If molten magma cools at extremely high rates (as in extrusive igneous stones) disallowing crystallization, the result is a volcanic glass called obsidian.
Igneous rock textures .
Phaneritic
The size, shape and arrangement of the mineral grains of any rock is called its texture . Generally, if magma cools slowly, its mineral crystals will have more time to grow and the resulting rock will demonstrate a course or phaneritic texture. This texture will be more characteristic of intrusive rocks and you will be able to see the mineral grains .
Aphanitic
On the other hand, if the magma or lava cools quickly, the matrix of tiny crystals that are formed give the rock a fine or aphanitic texture. Fine textured rocks are usually volcanic or shallow intrusive. These rocks cool so quickly that you will usually not see the individual mineral grains with an unaided eye.
Porphyrhitic
A third type of texture occurs when a molten mass begins to cool slowly, and some crystals of one mineral begin to form. Sometimes this material is then moved (or erupted) and the remaining material cools quickly. The resulting rock will have large crystals that are in a finegrained groundmass. This is called a porphyrhitic texture, and the rock is porphyry.
Igneous rocks are also classified by the amount of silica they contain .
IGNEOUS ROCKS
ACIDIC
A ROCK THAT CONTAINS MORE THAN 66% SILICA
INTERMEDIATE
A ROCK THAT CONTAINS 52% TO 66% SILICA
BASIC
A ROCK CONTAINING 45% TO52% SILICA
ULTRABASIC
A ROCK CONTAINING LESS THAN 45% SILICA
As a rule, acidic and intermediate rocks form by the solidification of molten crystal material. Basic rocks more often form from molten material brought up from the mantle.
BY COMBINING THE TEXTURE AND THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF A ROCK WE CAN DEFINE THE MOST COMMON IGNEOUS ROCKS.
COMMON IGNEOUS ROCKS
EXTRUSIVE
INTRUSIVE
ACIDIC
RHYOLITE
GRANITE
INTERMEDIATE
ANDESITE
DIORITE
BASIC
BASALT
GABBRO
ULTRABASIC
PERIDOTITE A melt goes through many stages as it solidifies in a process called fractionation. As the melt cools the minerals that generally crystallize first are those low in silica such as olivine and pyroxene. The remaining melt becomes more silica rich. This may then be erupted and form acidic rocks.
The term metamorphic is derived from the Latin term meaning, "change of form”. It can be defined as mineralogical, chemical & crystallographic changes in a solid-state rock, in response to new conditions of pressure & or temperature & or introduction of fluids, causing the existing rocks minerals to recrystalize. They may even become different minerals all together. It is important to realize that the rock remains in its solid state. Once rock minerals are melted, and then recrystallize, the new material will be igneous. Temperature change can range from 100 c to 900 c.
METAMORPHISM can be of four types:
· Regional metamorphism:
This type of metamorphism occurs in broad areas of earth’s crust. Regional metamorphism deforms the rocks strongly. This type of metamorphism is further classified in two categories Barrovian or Buchan type metamorphism depending upon temperature and pressure gradients.
· Impact metamorphism :
This type pf metamorphism occurs in ultrahigh pressures & low temperature which are the result of collision of a meteorite or extraterrestrial object or during an extremely violent volcanic eruption.
· Contact(thermal) metamorphism :
This occurs typically around igneous intrusive rocks. As a result of the temperature increase caused by igneous body itself. Magma fluids coming from the intrusive rock may also take part in contact metamorphism. Contact metamorphic rocks are known as hornfels and usually are fine grained.
· Hydrothermal metamorphism :
Hydrothermal metamorphism is the result of the interaction of a rock with high temperature fluid of distinct composition. This metamorphism results from reaction between protolith (original rock before transformation) & fluid. This kind of metamorphism is responsible for many metal deposits on earth.
We have studied metamorphism now we will be able to define metamorphism rocks more systematically.
Metamorphic Rocks results from mineralogical and structural adjustments of solid rocks to physical and chemical conditions differing from those under which the rocks originally formed. Temperature and pressure are important factor in the formation of metamorphic rocks.
Classification of Metamorphic Rocks:
Metamorphic rocks can be subdivided into foliated and non-foliated types. This is determined by the presence of minerals that are aligned parallel to each other. This results in a layered appearance. A non-foliated metamorphic rock generally consists of equal dimensional grains.
A rock can also be identified by its metamorphic grade. This is simply a description of the overall intensity of metamorphism the rock was subjected to. What this implies is that a low-grade metamorphic rock shows textural or mineralogic evidence of having been subjected to low pressures and/or temperatures.
Metamorphisms produced with increasing pressure and or temperature is known as PROGRADE METAMORPHISM. Conversely decreasing temperature and or pressure characterize RETROGRADE METAMORPHISM.
Slates, marbles & Quartzite are example of metamorphic rocks.
IGNEOUS ROCKS:
Igneous rocks are formed from solidification of molten magma erupted through the mantle or crust of earth. As this magma in earth is less dense then surrounding solid rocks, it rises up towards surface. This lava has two options depending upon it’s surrounding conditions either it may erupt at the surface from the volcano’s mouth or it may settle within the earth’s crust. This classifies the types of igneous rocks.
1. Intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks are the rocks, which results due to solidification of lava deep within earth.
2. Extrusive or volcanic rocksare the rocks, which results due to solidification or crystallization of lava on the outer surface of earth.
These two types of igneous rocks can be identified by visualizing them Since slow cooking of “intrusive rocks” promote the growth of mineral beds which can be identified without microscope. While in extrusive igneous rocks these minerals cannot be seen by naked eye. If molten magma cools at extremely high rates (as in extrusive igneous stones) disallowing crystallization, the result is a volcanic glass called obsidian.
Igneous rock textures .
Phaneritic
The size, shape and arrangement of the mineral grains of any rock is called its texture . Generally, if magma cools slowly, its mineral crystals will have more time to grow and the resulting rock will demonstrate a course or phaneritic texture. This texture will be more characteristic of intrusive rocks and you will be able to see the mineral grains .
Aphanitic
On the other hand, if the magma or lava cools quickly, the matrix of tiny crystals that are formed give the rock a fine or aphanitic texture. Fine textured rocks are usually volcanic or shallow intrusive. These rocks cool so quickly that you will usually not see the individual mineral grains with an unaided eye.
Porphyrhitic
A third type of texture occurs when a molten mass begins to cool slowly, and some crystals of one mineral begin to form. Sometimes this material is then moved (or erupted) and the remaining material cools quickly. The resulting rock will have large crystals that are in a finegrained groundmass. This is called a porphyrhitic texture, and the rock is porphyry.
Igneous rocks are also classified by the amount of silica they contain .
IGNEOUS ROCKS
ACIDIC
A ROCK THAT CONTAINS MORE THAN 66% SILICA
INTERMEDIATE
A ROCK THAT CONTAINS 52% TO 66% SILICA
BASIC
A ROCK CONTAINING 45% TO52% SILICA
ULTRABASIC
A ROCK CONTAINING LESS THAN 45% SILICA
As a rule, acidic and intermediate rocks form by the solidification of molten crystal material. Basic rocks more often form from molten material brought up from the mantle.
BY COMBINING THE TEXTURE AND THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF A ROCK WE CAN DEFINE THE MOST COMMON IGNEOUS ROCKS.
COMMON IGNEOUS ROCKS
EXTRUSIVE
INTRUSIVE
ACIDIC
RHYOLITE
GRANITE
INTERMEDIATE
ANDESITE
DIORITE
BASIC
BASALT
GABBRO
ULTRABASIC
PERIDOTITE A melt goes through many stages as it solidifies in a process called fractionation. As the melt cools the minerals that generally crystallize first are those low in silica such as olivine and pyroxene. The remaining melt becomes more silica rich. This may then be erupted and form acidic rocks.
MAGMA FORMATION(MOLTEN MATERIAL BELOW THE SURFACE)
Magma Formation (molten materials below the surface):
Elevated temperatures within the Earth (possibly caused by the decay of nearby radioisotopes) cause the rocks ions to vibrate in their lattice position. Increased heating may eventually collapse the lattice, forming liquid or molten material.
Another cause of temperature elevation is the natural increase in temperature as depth increases. This is known as the geothermal gradient.
As pressure increases, the melting temperature also increases (provided the rocks are dry). Conversely the presence of water or water vapor in the rocks will lower the rock’s melting point. A wet rock will melt at a lower temperature than a dry rock of the same composition.
2. As pressure rises, so do the effects of water, therefore as the pressure on a wet rock increases the temperature at which it melts decreases. This is the exact apposite of dry rock.
At a depth of 35km to 40 km the geothermal gradient is just enough to start melting average crustal rock (in the presence of water) forming magma.
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Elevated temperatures within the Earth (possibly caused by the decay of nearby radioisotopes) cause the rocks ions to vibrate in their lattice position. Increased heating may eventually collapse the lattice, forming liquid or molten material.
Another cause of temperature elevation is the natural increase in temperature as depth increases. This is known as the geothermal gradient.
As pressure increases, the melting temperature also increases (provided the rocks are dry). Conversely the presence of water or water vapor in the rocks will lower the rock’s melting point. A wet rock will melt at a lower temperature than a dry rock of the same composition.
2. As pressure rises, so do the effects of water, therefore as the pressure on a wet rock increases the temperature at which it melts decreases. This is the exact apposite of dry rock.
At a depth of 35km to 40 km the geothermal gradient is just enough to start melting average crustal rock (in the presence of water) forming magma.
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GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT STONES
General information about stones
LIME STONE:
This is a type of chemical sedimentary rocks. Limestone is principally composed of calcium carbonate (Caco3) (calcite) or calcium magnesium carbonate (Dolomite). Marine organisms mainly form calcite deposition settles out of the water column and get deposited on ocean floors. . Limestone is originally white but it may have different colors due to impurities like iron oxide and carbon. In India limestone is quarried in Kota (northern India) and Cuddupha (south India). Its elegant light colors are specially adored by Europeans & Americans.
Limestones are further divided into three categories depending upon its density.
· Low density :- lime stones having density ranging from 110 lb\ft3 to 135 lb\f3(i.e. 1760 kg\m3 to 2160 kg\m3)
· Medium density :- limestones having density between 135 to 160 lb\f3(i.e 2160 to 2560 kg\m3)
· High density :- limestones having density greater than 160 lb\f3(25560 kg\m3)
Lime stones textures are associated by a number of distinguishable natural characteristics including open texture streak, honey comb for iron spots, travertine like formatting. Limestones show resistance in freezing and thawing conditions.
SANDSTONES :
Sandstones are clastic type of sedimentary rock. It is formed by deposition of remains of other rocks. The chemical composition of sandstone is just like sand; the rock is composed essentially of Quartz. Feldspur is other main constituent of coarse-grained (crystals have diameter of greater than ½ inches.)
These grains of sands are cemented/ binded together by silica, CaCO3 or iron oxide. It is this cementing element, which determines its colour.
Strength of any sandstone is determined by percentage of Quartz & clay matrix (Binding Agent). More percentage of Quartz will decrease percentage of clay matrix in stone. Hence increase in strength & vice versa. Depending upon percentage of clay matrix, sandstones are mainly divided into three groups
1.) Arenites : Arenites are the sandstones which contains less than 10% of clay matrix in total composition. Arenite is the word taken from Spanish word “Arena” which means sand in English. Arenite is subdivided in two categories.
§ Arkose : A feldspar rich sandstone is known as Arkoses ( Feldspar 25% ).
§ Litherenites : litherinites are sandstones which are lithic rich.
2.) wake:- wacke are the sandstone which contain 10 to 50% clay matrix.
§ quartz wacke: These types of wackes have predominantly quartz surrounded by a mud or clay structure.
§ feldspaaar wacke: feldspar is surround by mud structure.
§ Lithic wacke: These are also known as grey wacke. It is predominantely lithic surrounded by clay structure.
3.) sandy mudstones:- rocks with more than 50%. Clay matrixes are known as sandy mudstones.
Sandstones are quite hard and have great compressive strength. It is available in many colors and shades and streaks. In India we have white mint, red, pink, beige, gray, brown, rainbow(multicolor), teak like stone, multishades of green etc. these all have low water absorbing prosperity. So because of its qualities sand stones can be used almost every where from hospital’s floor to wall interiors as well as exteriors.
In India, Gwaliar, Shivpuri, Lalitpur, Dholpur, Kota, Kishangarh are known for sandstone minning.
Conglomerate: - It is another type of sedimentary rocks which is formed from cementing of rounded coble and pebble sized rock fragment (clastic sedimentation)_. River movements or ocean wave action forms conglomerate.
Breccia: - It is another clastic sedimentary rock which is formed in the in a similar fashion to conglomerates. The difference between two rocks is that breccias rocks fragments are very sharp and angular the reason for these sharp and angular fragments is that the fragments of rocks are not transported by wind, water or glaciers long enough to be rounded and smoothed like in conglomerate rocks. The cementing agents (silica, calcite etc) both rocks are same.
Now we will discuss some of metamorphic rocks:-
SLATES: - Natural slates are compact fine grained metamorphic rocks which are found extremely low weight. Skate is produced by low grade metamorphism which is caused by relatively low temperature and pressures. These are extremely useful as roofing, wall cladding or paving stones. Slates are primarily composed of silica and aluminum. Slates have distinguished lllusture and shinning which are found very attractive and hypnotizing. Slates are relatively less dense and can be splitted in thin layers by using chisels. These are an architect’s choice because of its shinning property, fireproof property and non-slipry properties. It can be used in interiors as well as exteriors. India exports some of finest slates in the world.
Other names of slate stones:-
Grey slates, flags, flagstones, thick stones, slabs, flat stone, stone tiles and tile stones. In India slate stones are moved in Kund, Ddevli and Markapur mainly.
Schist: - it is a medium grade metamorphic rock i.e. these have been subjected to more pressure and heat than slate stones. Schists are usually named based on minerals which may be present:
o mica schist
o garnet schist
o chlorite schist
o kyanite schist
o talc schist
Geneiss: -
These are high grade metamorphic rock which means geneiss has been subjected to more temperature and heat that schist. Gneiss is coarser that schist and has distort banding. This banding has alternating layers that are composed of different minerals. Feldspar, mica and quartz form the geneiss. Geneiss the metamorphic rock formed by alteration in sedimentary rocks properties by heat and pressure but geneiss can be result metamorphism of igneous rock granite.
Above three types of stones were layered or foliated metamorphic stones. Now we will see non foliated metamorphic rocks. A banded or striped rock with alternating layers of dark and light minerals. The dark layers commonly contain biotite, and the light layers commonly contain quartz and feldspar.
Marbles: - The word “marble” is derived from Greek word “madrmoros” which means shinning stone. Marble is a metamorphic lime stone composed of very pure calcium cadrbonate, caco3. The softness and elegance of marble is very desirable for sculpture and building stone marble can be divided into four groups:
Group a: Marble width most uniform and favo9raable working qualities with no flows or voids.
Group b: May have natural faults with less favorable working qualities.
Group c: Marbles with some variations in working qualities, geological flaws, voids, veins and line of separation are common. It is standard to repair these variations by one or more of several methods i.e. whizzing, sticking filling and cementing. Liners and other forms of reinforcement are used when necessary.
Group d:-Similar to preceding group But containing larger purporting of natural faults, maximum variations in working qualities and requiring more of same methods of finishing.
Quartzite: - Quartzite common and widely distributed rock composed mainly or entirely of quartz. The compact granular rock is a form of metamorphosed sandstones in which silica, or quartz has been deposited between the grains of quartz of which sandstone is essentially composed.
Unlike sands stone, quartzite breaks through not around the quartz grains, producing a smooth surface instead of a rough and granular one. Quartzites are white pink or gray. They yield a thin and very barren soil and because they weather slowly, tend to project as hill or mountain masses.
Most quartzites contain more than 90% or more quartiz, but some contain 99% and are largest and purest concentration of silica in the earth’s crust. Sand stones turn into quartzite stone in turn different ways. In one method, under the high pressures and temperatures of deep burial, the mineral grains recrdystallize and all traces of original sediments are erased. The result is a true metamorphic rock called metaquartzite. This boulder is probably a metaquartzite.
Quartzite is very hardstone which is difficult to mine and cutting. So quartize is a bit expensive stone.
Granite: - The word “granite” comes from latin word granum, which means grain, in reference to the grained structure of such a crystalline rock. Granite is a common and widely occurring igeneous rock of intrusive group. These rocks are formed at great depths and pressure under continents. Granite consists of orthoclase, plagioclase, quartz, hornblende, biotite, muscovite and other monor accessories such as magnetite, garnet, zircon and apatite minerals. Rarely a pyroxene is present. Generally granites carries small amount of plagioclase feldspar causes granite to pass into granodiorite. A rock consisting of equal proportions of orthoclase and plagiclase plus quartz can be considered a quartz monozonite. Granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called binary granites. Specific gravity of granite ranges from 2.63 to 2.75. Its crushing strength is from 1050 to 14000 kg per sq cm (15000 to 20000 lb per sq inches).
o Fine grain: - fine grained granites are those in which feldspar crystals average about 1/16” to 1/8” in diameter.
o Medium grain: - medium grain granites are those in which feldspar crystals average about ¼” in diameter.
o Coarse grain: - coarse grain granites are those in which feldspar crystals average 1\2” or greater in diameter
Note: - more the size of grain, lesser is the density of granite.
Gabbros: - It is a dark colored, coarse-grained intrusive rock. It is mostly composed of mineral plagioclase feldspar with similar amount of pyroxene and olivine.
Basalts: - These are also dark colored but fine grained extrusive rocks. The grains are so fine that they are impossible to distinguish with naked eye.
Dacite: - Dacite is an extrusive igneous rock. The principle mineral, which makes the dacite, are plagioclase quartz, pyroxene or hornblende.Rhyolite: - similar to granite but much finer crystals. As in another extrusive rock the grains cannot be seen by naked eyes. The minerals that make up rhyolite are quartz, feldspar, and mica hornblende.
LIME STONE:
This is a type of chemical sedimentary rocks. Limestone is principally composed of calcium carbonate (Caco3) (calcite) or calcium magnesium carbonate (Dolomite). Marine organisms mainly form calcite deposition settles out of the water column and get deposited on ocean floors. . Limestone is originally white but it may have different colors due to impurities like iron oxide and carbon. In India limestone is quarried in Kota (northern India) and Cuddupha (south India). Its elegant light colors are specially adored by Europeans & Americans.
Limestones are further divided into three categories depending upon its density.
· Low density :- lime stones having density ranging from 110 lb\ft3 to 135 lb\f3(i.e. 1760 kg\m3 to 2160 kg\m3)
· Medium density :- limestones having density between 135 to 160 lb\f3(i.e 2160 to 2560 kg\m3)
· High density :- limestones having density greater than 160 lb\f3(25560 kg\m3)
Lime stones textures are associated by a number of distinguishable natural characteristics including open texture streak, honey comb for iron spots, travertine like formatting. Limestones show resistance in freezing and thawing conditions.
SANDSTONES :
Sandstones are clastic type of sedimentary rock. It is formed by deposition of remains of other rocks. The chemical composition of sandstone is just like sand; the rock is composed essentially of Quartz. Feldspur is other main constituent of coarse-grained (crystals have diameter of greater than ½ inches.)
These grains of sands are cemented/ binded together by silica, CaCO3 or iron oxide. It is this cementing element, which determines its colour.
Strength of any sandstone is determined by percentage of Quartz & clay matrix (Binding Agent). More percentage of Quartz will decrease percentage of clay matrix in stone. Hence increase in strength & vice versa. Depending upon percentage of clay matrix, sandstones are mainly divided into three groups
1.) Arenites : Arenites are the sandstones which contains less than 10% of clay matrix in total composition. Arenite is the word taken from Spanish word “Arena” which means sand in English. Arenite is subdivided in two categories.
§ Arkose : A feldspar rich sandstone is known as Arkoses ( Feldspar 25% ).
§ Litherenites : litherinites are sandstones which are lithic rich.
2.) wake:- wacke are the sandstone which contain 10 to 50% clay matrix.
§ quartz wacke: These types of wackes have predominantly quartz surrounded by a mud or clay structure.
§ feldspaaar wacke: feldspar is surround by mud structure.
§ Lithic wacke: These are also known as grey wacke. It is predominantely lithic surrounded by clay structure.
3.) sandy mudstones:- rocks with more than 50%. Clay matrixes are known as sandy mudstones.
Sandstones are quite hard and have great compressive strength. It is available in many colors and shades and streaks. In India we have white mint, red, pink, beige, gray, brown, rainbow(multicolor), teak like stone, multishades of green etc. these all have low water absorbing prosperity. So because of its qualities sand stones can be used almost every where from hospital’s floor to wall interiors as well as exteriors.
In India, Gwaliar, Shivpuri, Lalitpur, Dholpur, Kota, Kishangarh are known for sandstone minning.
Conglomerate: - It is another type of sedimentary rocks which is formed from cementing of rounded coble and pebble sized rock fragment (clastic sedimentation)_. River movements or ocean wave action forms conglomerate.
Breccia: - It is another clastic sedimentary rock which is formed in the in a similar fashion to conglomerates. The difference between two rocks is that breccias rocks fragments are very sharp and angular the reason for these sharp and angular fragments is that the fragments of rocks are not transported by wind, water or glaciers long enough to be rounded and smoothed like in conglomerate rocks. The cementing agents (silica, calcite etc) both rocks are same.
Now we will discuss some of metamorphic rocks:-
SLATES: - Natural slates are compact fine grained metamorphic rocks which are found extremely low weight. Skate is produced by low grade metamorphism which is caused by relatively low temperature and pressures. These are extremely useful as roofing, wall cladding or paving stones. Slates are primarily composed of silica and aluminum. Slates have distinguished lllusture and shinning which are found very attractive and hypnotizing. Slates are relatively less dense and can be splitted in thin layers by using chisels. These are an architect’s choice because of its shinning property, fireproof property and non-slipry properties. It can be used in interiors as well as exteriors. India exports some of finest slates in the world.
Other names of slate stones:-
Grey slates, flags, flagstones, thick stones, slabs, flat stone, stone tiles and tile stones. In India slate stones are moved in Kund, Ddevli and Markapur mainly.
Schist: - it is a medium grade metamorphic rock i.e. these have been subjected to more pressure and heat than slate stones. Schists are usually named based on minerals which may be present:
o mica schist
o garnet schist
o chlorite schist
o kyanite schist
o talc schist
Geneiss: -
These are high grade metamorphic rock which means geneiss has been subjected to more temperature and heat that schist. Gneiss is coarser that schist and has distort banding. This banding has alternating layers that are composed of different minerals. Feldspar, mica and quartz form the geneiss. Geneiss the metamorphic rock formed by alteration in sedimentary rocks properties by heat and pressure but geneiss can be result metamorphism of igneous rock granite.
Above three types of stones were layered or foliated metamorphic stones. Now we will see non foliated metamorphic rocks. A banded or striped rock with alternating layers of dark and light minerals. The dark layers commonly contain biotite, and the light layers commonly contain quartz and feldspar.
Marbles: - The word “marble” is derived from Greek word “madrmoros” which means shinning stone. Marble is a metamorphic lime stone composed of very pure calcium cadrbonate, caco3. The softness and elegance of marble is very desirable for sculpture and building stone marble can be divided into four groups:
Group a: Marble width most uniform and favo9raable working qualities with no flows or voids.
Group b: May have natural faults with less favorable working qualities.
Group c: Marbles with some variations in working qualities, geological flaws, voids, veins and line of separation are common. It is standard to repair these variations by one or more of several methods i.e. whizzing, sticking filling and cementing. Liners and other forms of reinforcement are used when necessary.
Group d:-Similar to preceding group But containing larger purporting of natural faults, maximum variations in working qualities and requiring more of same methods of finishing.
Quartzite: - Quartzite common and widely distributed rock composed mainly or entirely of quartz. The compact granular rock is a form of metamorphosed sandstones in which silica, or quartz has been deposited between the grains of quartz of which sandstone is essentially composed.
Unlike sands stone, quartzite breaks through not around the quartz grains, producing a smooth surface instead of a rough and granular one. Quartzites are white pink or gray. They yield a thin and very barren soil and because they weather slowly, tend to project as hill or mountain masses.
Most quartzites contain more than 90% or more quartiz, but some contain 99% and are largest and purest concentration of silica in the earth’s crust. Sand stones turn into quartzite stone in turn different ways. In one method, under the high pressures and temperatures of deep burial, the mineral grains recrdystallize and all traces of original sediments are erased. The result is a true metamorphic rock called metaquartzite. This boulder is probably a metaquartzite.
Quartzite is very hardstone which is difficult to mine and cutting. So quartize is a bit expensive stone.
Granite: - The word “granite” comes from latin word granum, which means grain, in reference to the grained structure of such a crystalline rock. Granite is a common and widely occurring igeneous rock of intrusive group. These rocks are formed at great depths and pressure under continents. Granite consists of orthoclase, plagioclase, quartz, hornblende, biotite, muscovite and other monor accessories such as magnetite, garnet, zircon and apatite minerals. Rarely a pyroxene is present. Generally granites carries small amount of plagioclase feldspar causes granite to pass into granodiorite. A rock consisting of equal proportions of orthoclase and plagiclase plus quartz can be considered a quartz monozonite. Granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called binary granites. Specific gravity of granite ranges from 2.63 to 2.75. Its crushing strength is from 1050 to 14000 kg per sq cm (15000 to 20000 lb per sq inches).
o Fine grain: - fine grained granites are those in which feldspar crystals average about 1/16” to 1/8” in diameter.
o Medium grain: - medium grain granites are those in which feldspar crystals average about ¼” in diameter.
o Coarse grain: - coarse grain granites are those in which feldspar crystals average 1\2” or greater in diameter
Note: - more the size of grain, lesser is the density of granite.
Gabbros: - It is a dark colored, coarse-grained intrusive rock. It is mostly composed of mineral plagioclase feldspar with similar amount of pyroxene and olivine.
Basalts: - These are also dark colored but fine grained extrusive rocks. The grains are so fine that they are impossible to distinguish with naked eye.
Dacite: - Dacite is an extrusive igneous rock. The principle mineral, which makes the dacite, are plagioclase quartz, pyroxene or hornblende.Rhyolite: - similar to granite but much finer crystals. As in another extrusive rock the grains cannot be seen by naked eyes. The minerals that make up rhyolite are quartz, feldspar, and mica hornblende.
SANDSTONEPJYSICAL PROPERTIES
Sandstone Physical Properties
The physical properties of sandstone includes following: ColorThe color varies from red, green, yellow, gray and white. The variation is result of the binding material and its percentage constituent. Water Absorption The capacity of water absorption is not more than 1.0%HardnessLies between 6 to 7 on Moh's Scale Density 2.32 to 2.42 Kg/m3 Porosity The porosity varies from low to very low. Compressive Strength Varies from 365 to 460 Kg/m2
The physical properties of sandstone includes following: ColorThe color varies from red, green, yellow, gray and white. The variation is result of the binding material and its percentage constituent. Water Absorption The capacity of water absorption is not more than 1.0%HardnessLies between 6 to 7 on Moh's Scale Density 2.32 to 2.42 Kg/m3 Porosity The porosity varies from low to very low. Compressive Strength Varies from 365 to 460 Kg/m2
SANDSTONE COMPOSITION
Sandstone Composition
Sandstones are classified on the basis of the composition of their grains. Three components are considered:
Quartz grains
Feldspar grains
Rock fragment grains Based on the percentage composition of these components, the color and the physical properties of the various varieties of sand stone varies.
Sandstones are classified on the basis of the composition of their grains. Three components are considered:
Quartz grains
Feldspar grains
Rock fragment grains Based on the percentage composition of these components, the color and the physical properties of the various varieties of sand stone varies.
SANDSTONE
Sandstone
Sandstone is actually a sedimentary rock formed by the consolidation and compaction of sand, which is held together by a natural cement, such as silica. Natural sandstone is an extremely hard and tough material. Sandstone is typically the youngest of the quartz-based stones, with each stone having a different level of porosity, hardness and compressive strength. Indian sandstone is suitable for domestic and commercial use. Owing to their natural beauty, sandstones are used for interior as well as exterior decoration including flooring, paving, cladding walls and floors.
Sandstone is actually a sedimentary rock formed by the consolidation and compaction of sand, which is held together by a natural cement, such as silica. Natural sandstone is an extremely hard and tough material. Sandstone is typically the youngest of the quartz-based stones, with each stone having a different level of porosity, hardness and compressive strength. Indian sandstone is suitable for domestic and commercial use. Owing to their natural beauty, sandstones are used for interior as well as exterior decoration including flooring, paving, cladding walls and floors.
SANDSTONE TEXTURES
Sandstone Textures
Sandstones have different surface textures, which varies according to their formation. However now a days the stones are fabricated as the desired texture and the usage. There are six main types of surfaces that are in use.NaturalThe natural surface texture is achieved by ripping along its line of cleavage to reveal the natural grain & texture. This texture gives an undulating surface with great character. The surface comes with natural clefts giving a very natural look. Flamedtexture provides a rough surface. The roughness in the surface is a result of bursting of crystals when the stone is heated. Such a surface gives an irregular textured finish. PolishedPolished surface texture is a reflection of polished crystals. Such texture brings out the brilliant colors and grains of natural stones. The shine on stone surface comes from polishing bricks and powders used during fabrication and not from any coating. HonedThe honed texture is produced by grinding a surface with high grit material to a uniform specification, such that it does not produce a reflective surface. Thus honed stone colors are not as vibrant as polished stones. A smooth finish with a slight sheen is produced by using a polishing head. This surface is very smooth, but often very porous. Bush HammeredA pounding action that develops a textured surface. The top surface is pneumatically tooled to produce a pitted or grooved surface finish. Sawn Sawn surface is coarsely polished leaving a semi-smooth, regular finish. It is done by using a gang saw. Sand BlastedProducing a finish similar to cleft, sand blasting involves projecting a high-pressure airline coarse-grained grit, onto the top surface of the stone. It is characterized by a textured surface with a matte gloss.
Sandstones have different surface textures, which varies according to their formation. However now a days the stones are fabricated as the desired texture and the usage. There are six main types of surfaces that are in use.NaturalThe natural surface texture is achieved by ripping along its line of cleavage to reveal the natural grain & texture. This texture gives an undulating surface with great character. The surface comes with natural clefts giving a very natural look. Flamedtexture provides a rough surface. The roughness in the surface is a result of bursting of crystals when the stone is heated. Such a surface gives an irregular textured finish. PolishedPolished surface texture is a reflection of polished crystals. Such texture brings out the brilliant colors and grains of natural stones. The shine on stone surface comes from polishing bricks and powders used during fabrication and not from any coating. HonedThe honed texture is produced by grinding a surface with high grit material to a uniform specification, such that it does not produce a reflective surface. Thus honed stone colors are not as vibrant as polished stones. A smooth finish with a slight sheen is produced by using a polishing head. This surface is very smooth, but often very porous. Bush HammeredA pounding action that develops a textured surface. The top surface is pneumatically tooled to produce a pitted or grooved surface finish. Sawn Sawn surface is coarsely polished leaving a semi-smooth, regular finish. It is done by using a gang saw. Sand BlastedProducing a finish similar to cleft, sand blasting involves projecting a high-pressure airline coarse-grained grit, onto the top surface of the stone. It is characterized by a textured surface with a matte gloss.
SANDSTONE EDGES
Sandstone Edges
The finish and the smoothness of the tiles and the slabs made of sandstone depends on the edges, which is further dependent on the way they are cut. The edges play a major role in the overall appearance of the architecture they are used in. The fine edges of a stone can enhance the overall look of ceiling, flooring or any other exterior or interior looks. The edges are available in three different finishes. These are - Machine cut/sawn, Hand chiseled/hand dressed or Chamfered/beveled Machine cut/Sawn EdgesSuch tiles or slabs are the commonly used types of edges. Using machine lends the fine edges which simplifies the work of the fitter as these slabs or tiles fit perfectly. The machine cut/ sawn edges slabs are subjected to a high speed rolling cutter blade to get a very smooth edge surface with a complementary (90°) angle at the vertices of the tiles/slabs.Hand Chiseled EdgesHand chiseled edges, as the name suggests are smoothened by the professional workers. Hand chiseled or hand dressed edges are best suited for exterior walls and pavements. This type of tiles is first cut into different sizes and then, they are worked upon to achieve the smoothness. This edge finish is very much similar to natural surface finish and hand dressed edges are a good combination with natural surface finish. Chamfered Edges The chamfered edge slabs looks classic on exterior walls or any part of interior. These slabs most commonly find place in kitchen tops or on table tops. Chamfering the edges is achieved by following the two processes of first sawing and then polishing. Chamfering removes the shine and whiteness of sawn edges.
The finish and the smoothness of the tiles and the slabs made of sandstone depends on the edges, which is further dependent on the way they are cut. The edges play a major role in the overall appearance of the architecture they are used in. The fine edges of a stone can enhance the overall look of ceiling, flooring or any other exterior or interior looks. The edges are available in three different finishes. These are - Machine cut/sawn, Hand chiseled/hand dressed or Chamfered/beveled Machine cut/Sawn EdgesSuch tiles or slabs are the commonly used types of edges. Using machine lends the fine edges which simplifies the work of the fitter as these slabs or tiles fit perfectly. The machine cut/ sawn edges slabs are subjected to a high speed rolling cutter blade to get a very smooth edge surface with a complementary (90°) angle at the vertices of the tiles/slabs.Hand Chiseled EdgesHand chiseled edges, as the name suggests are smoothened by the professional workers. Hand chiseled or hand dressed edges are best suited for exterior walls and pavements. This type of tiles is first cut into different sizes and then, they are worked upon to achieve the smoothness. This edge finish is very much similar to natural surface finish and hand dressed edges are a good combination with natural surface finish. Chamfered Edges The chamfered edge slabs looks classic on exterior walls or any part of interior. These slabs most commonly find place in kitchen tops or on table tops. Chamfering the edges is achieved by following the two processes of first sawing and then polishing. Chamfering removes the shine and whiteness of sawn edges.
VARITIES OF SANDSTONE
Varieties of Sandstone
Kandla GrayAlso known as Bhilwara-GREY has quartz grains cemented together by secondary silica calcite. This sandstone is available in three different shades of bluish gray, dark gray, and light gray.Rajpura GreenAlso known as Bhilwara-GREEN is a commonly used building stone. Rajpura stone can be easily carved and dressed into various attractive shapes. It finds various applications including - roofing, flooring, paving and paneling. Marson CopperAlso known as Bhilwara-BROWN sandstone is a smooth round stone. This stone is made up of grains of quartz and other minerals of fairly uniform size. ChocolateThis sandstone has high content of iron oxide making it buff to brownish; and sometimes reddish. The most important usage of this stone is exterior cladding and is available in natural, sawn as well as polished surface finishes. Gwalior Greenish WhiteAlso known as GWL-MINT, Gwalior Mint is most suitable for use in flooring, wall fixing and lining due to its physical and chemical properties. It is the smooth natural split surface which makes it commensurate for flooring. This highly useful stone is also suitable for carving and making stone handcrafted items.
Lalitpur YellowAlso known as LLP - YELLOW this stone is especially meant for exterior cladding in sea shore buildings due to acid & thermal resistant properties. The saline winds have negligible effect on LLP Yellow stone(Lalitpur sandstone). Dholpur-BEIGEThis buff white colored sandstone is one of the highly used sandstone variety. The peculiarity of the stone is the attractive, minor purple veins that are visible when the stone is wet. Owing to its regular bedding, uniform grain size, suitable nature and durability, it has been used from over centuries and is a constituent of a large number of historical buildings and monuments. Dholpur PINKFrom Dholpur origin in Rajasthan, this stone is available in form of tiles, slabs, blocks in either natural, sawn or polished surfaces. The stone is mostly used for exteriors and has regular bedding, uniform grain size, suitable nature and durability. Agra RedAlso known as Dholpur-RED is one of the most famous varieties of sandstone ever since its use in Agra Fort and Delhi Fort. The stone has high degree of tolerance that does not show weathering effects even for ages. The stone being smooth and soft is easy to be carved and cut and is therefore used in stone handicrafts. Khatu TeakThis creamish colored stone is fine grained and bears brown veins through out the surface. This brownish touch gives the look of wooden finish and hence is also named as teakwood sandstone. This stone is available only in the form of tiles with sawn surface finish, since this stone can not be polished. Khatu Rainbow Rainbow stone is made of fine grained quartz and various other minerals. The presence of other minerals lend attractive color to the stone. Depending on the percentage of constituent minerals the color varies in the form of brown, violet and sometimes reddish veins. It is because of the regular color variation that this stone has been named Rainbow. Like Khatu Teak, rainbow is also available in tiles in sawn finish only.
Kandla GrayAlso known as Bhilwara-GREY has quartz grains cemented together by secondary silica calcite. This sandstone is available in three different shades of bluish gray, dark gray, and light gray.Rajpura GreenAlso known as Bhilwara-GREEN is a commonly used building stone. Rajpura stone can be easily carved and dressed into various attractive shapes. It finds various applications including - roofing, flooring, paving and paneling. Marson CopperAlso known as Bhilwara-BROWN sandstone is a smooth round stone. This stone is made up of grains of quartz and other minerals of fairly uniform size. ChocolateThis sandstone has high content of iron oxide making it buff to brownish; and sometimes reddish. The most important usage of this stone is exterior cladding and is available in natural, sawn as well as polished surface finishes. Gwalior Greenish WhiteAlso known as GWL-MINT, Gwalior Mint is most suitable for use in flooring, wall fixing and lining due to its physical and chemical properties. It is the smooth natural split surface which makes it commensurate for flooring. This highly useful stone is also suitable for carving and making stone handcrafted items.
Lalitpur YellowAlso known as LLP - YELLOW this stone is especially meant for exterior cladding in sea shore buildings due to acid & thermal resistant properties. The saline winds have negligible effect on LLP Yellow stone(Lalitpur sandstone). Dholpur-BEIGEThis buff white colored sandstone is one of the highly used sandstone variety. The peculiarity of the stone is the attractive, minor purple veins that are visible when the stone is wet. Owing to its regular bedding, uniform grain size, suitable nature and durability, it has been used from over centuries and is a constituent of a large number of historical buildings and monuments. Dholpur PINKFrom Dholpur origin in Rajasthan, this stone is available in form of tiles, slabs, blocks in either natural, sawn or polished surfaces. The stone is mostly used for exteriors and has regular bedding, uniform grain size, suitable nature and durability. Agra RedAlso known as Dholpur-RED is one of the most famous varieties of sandstone ever since its use in Agra Fort and Delhi Fort. The stone has high degree of tolerance that does not show weathering effects even for ages. The stone being smooth and soft is easy to be carved and cut and is therefore used in stone handicrafts. Khatu TeakThis creamish colored stone is fine grained and bears brown veins through out the surface. This brownish touch gives the look of wooden finish and hence is also named as teakwood sandstone. This stone is available only in the form of tiles with sawn surface finish, since this stone can not be polished. Khatu Rainbow Rainbow stone is made of fine grained quartz and various other minerals. The presence of other minerals lend attractive color to the stone. Depending on the percentage of constituent minerals the color varies in the form of brown, violet and sometimes reddish veins. It is because of the regular color variation that this stone has been named Rainbow. Like Khatu Teak, rainbow is also available in tiles in sawn finish only.
SANDSTONE QUARRY
Sandstone Quarry
Quarry is an open excavation from which the stone is obtained by digging, blasting or cutting. This process is called quarrying. The quarried stone is further processed. The typical process after quarrying involve the following four steps:
Dressing
Cutting/ sawing
Surface grinding and polishing and
Edge-cutting-trimming.
Once the processing is over, the stone is ready for further use. The same procedure is followed for sandstone.In India there are various sand stone quarries situated in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, few locations in - Gujrat, Orrisa, Karnatka, Tamil Nadu, Andaman and Nicobar and many more places.
Quarry is an open excavation from which the stone is obtained by digging, blasting or cutting. This process is called quarrying. The quarried stone is further processed. The typical process after quarrying involve the following four steps:
Dressing
Cutting/ sawing
Surface grinding and polishing and
Edge-cutting-trimming.
Once the processing is over, the stone is ready for further use. The same procedure is followed for sandstone.In India there are various sand stone quarries situated in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, few locations in - Gujrat, Orrisa, Karnatka, Tamil Nadu, Andaman and Nicobar and many more places.
SANDSTONE CARE
Sandstone Care
Sandstone requires care to ensure that sandstone lasts for years and generations and imparts natural beauty to the surroundings. Here are few tips for taking care of sandstone:Keep stone free of dust, which may otherwise produce scratches. Hence dust interior floors frequently using a clean non-treated dry dust mop.Use warm water to clear sandstone regularly using a mop or sponge.
The cleaner used should be neutral .
The cleaner to be used should not contain acid or lemon, which can otherwise etch the surface and damage the polish and finish.
Care should be taken while using vacuum cleaner as the metal or the plastic attachments or the wheels may scratch the surface.
Do not use scouring powders or creams; these products contain abrasives that may scratch the surface.
Do not use coasters under glasses, specially for those containing alcohol or citrus juices.
Do not place hot pans directly, use trivet or mats under them.
Sandstone requires care to ensure that sandstone lasts for years and generations and imparts natural beauty to the surroundings. Here are few tips for taking care of sandstone:Keep stone free of dust, which may otherwise produce scratches. Hence dust interior floors frequently using a clean non-treated dry dust mop.Use warm water to clear sandstone regularly using a mop or sponge.
The cleaner used should be neutral .
The cleaner to be used should not contain acid or lemon, which can otherwise etch the surface and damage the polish and finish.
Care should be taken while using vacuum cleaner as the metal or the plastic attachments or the wheels may scratch the surface.
Do not use scouring powders or creams; these products contain abrasives that may scratch the surface.
Do not use coasters under glasses, specially for those containing alcohol or citrus juices.
Do not place hot pans directly, use trivet or mats under them.
SANDSTONE HANDICRAFT AND CARVING
Sandstone Handicrafts
The alluring, rustic and exotic appeal of sandstone, has made sandstone useful for gracing the edifices of forts and palaces since ages. The availability of sandstone in various colors including brown, red, pink, green, beige, yellow and gray makes it further suitable for domestic and commercial use. Owing to its architectural properties and natural beauty sandstone is used for interior as well as exterior decoration. It is used to pave floors, clad walls and to churn out a wide range of handcrafted products like sculptures, frames, furniture, jewelry boxes, stands, garden ornaments, flower vases and many other decorative items. The various handcrafted itemsSandstone, the highly beautiful medium in stone is used to create a large medley of artifacts which are as follows:
Bird Bath - Is an ornamental basin often placed in garden for birds to bathe. It is made of pure sandstone and is available in various designs to suit the requirement of the customers.
Flower Vases - Is an open container, used for keeping flowers. These vases are artistically crafted out of sandstone that imparts an ethnic touch.
Garden Ornaments - Sandstone has been commensurate in making various garden ornaments and decorative items like fountains, garden furnitures, planters, statues etc. The unique garden accessories change the look and the feel of the garden completely. The exquisite sandstone is used in making - garden lamps; furnitures; garden troughs; statues; plinths; garden obelisks; garden miniatures; each of which captures the attention of the onlookers.
Indoor Wall Fountains - Are perfect as an interior item. The best part is that they do not occupy much space and impart uniqueness besides the calm serenity and added placidity. These sandstone fountains are placed in the living room or in the corridor or can even be put next to the staircase. These fountains are custom designed to suit the particular requirement. The fountain range is mostly available in Karauli Red, Dholpur Beige, Bansi Paharpur Pink, or Agra Red & Jaisalmer Yellow.
Figurative Sculptures - Are the huge figures that are exquisitely carved from sandstone. The sculptures are crafted out with the inspiration of old age, traditional art, and even the modern art.
Sandstone Candle Stands - Sandstone candle stands are available in a multitude of designs and shapes. It is not only used to hold candles but also as a show piece that enhances the interior decoration. The sandstone candle holders are designed aesthetically by skilled artisans. Besides the above listed items there are many more products that are crafted out of sandstone like outdoor fountains, religious statues, table bases, photo frames, paper weights, coasters and so on.
The alluring, rustic and exotic appeal of sandstone, has made sandstone useful for gracing the edifices of forts and palaces since ages. The availability of sandstone in various colors including brown, red, pink, green, beige, yellow and gray makes it further suitable for domestic and commercial use. Owing to its architectural properties and natural beauty sandstone is used for interior as well as exterior decoration. It is used to pave floors, clad walls and to churn out a wide range of handcrafted products like sculptures, frames, furniture, jewelry boxes, stands, garden ornaments, flower vases and many other decorative items. The various handcrafted itemsSandstone, the highly beautiful medium in stone is used to create a large medley of artifacts which are as follows:
Bird Bath - Is an ornamental basin often placed in garden for birds to bathe. It is made of pure sandstone and is available in various designs to suit the requirement of the customers.
Flower Vases - Is an open container, used for keeping flowers. These vases are artistically crafted out of sandstone that imparts an ethnic touch.
Garden Ornaments - Sandstone has been commensurate in making various garden ornaments and decorative items like fountains, garden furnitures, planters, statues etc. The unique garden accessories change the look and the feel of the garden completely. The exquisite sandstone is used in making - garden lamps; furnitures; garden troughs; statues; plinths; garden obelisks; garden miniatures; each of which captures the attention of the onlookers.
Indoor Wall Fountains - Are perfect as an interior item. The best part is that they do not occupy much space and impart uniqueness besides the calm serenity and added placidity. These sandstone fountains are placed in the living room or in the corridor or can even be put next to the staircase. These fountains are custom designed to suit the particular requirement. The fountain range is mostly available in Karauli Red, Dholpur Beige, Bansi Paharpur Pink, or Agra Red & Jaisalmer Yellow.
Figurative Sculptures - Are the huge figures that are exquisitely carved from sandstone. The sculptures are crafted out with the inspiration of old age, traditional art, and even the modern art.
Sandstone Candle Stands - Sandstone candle stands are available in a multitude of designs and shapes. It is not only used to hold candles but also as a show piece that enhances the interior decoration. The sandstone candle holders are designed aesthetically by skilled artisans. Besides the above listed items there are many more products that are crafted out of sandstone like outdoor fountains, religious statues, table bases, photo frames, paper weights, coasters and so on.
STANDARD SPECIFICATION
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
Quality
Minor color tonal variations exist but within the tolerance limit
Availability
Tiles, Slabs, Blocks, Cobbles
Available in following Surface finishes» Both sides Natural » Both sides Sawn » One side natural & one side Polished/honed Edges» Both hand chiseled and machine cut (sawn)Tiles Size in cms» 30x30, 40x40, 60x30, 60x60, 60x40, 60x90 Cut to size TilesThickness» 15mm to 50mm with a tolerance of ±5mm» 18mm to 22mm with a tolerance of ±2mm (for Both sides Sawn)Slab Size in cms» Cut to size slabs Upto 200cm length and 60cm width
Toolkit
• Conversion Charts• Currency Converter• Harmony Codes• Terminologies• Weights & Measures
Quality
Minor color tonal variations exist but within the tolerance limit
Availability
Tiles, Slabs, Blocks, Cobbles
Available in following Surface finishes» Both sides Natural » Both sides Sawn » One side natural & one side Polished/honed Edges» Both hand chiseled and machine cut (sawn)Tiles Size in cms» 30x30, 40x40, 60x30, 60x60, 60x40, 60x90 Cut to size TilesThickness» 15mm to 50mm with a tolerance of ±5mm» 18mm to 22mm with a tolerance of ±2mm (for Both sides Sawn)Slab Size in cms» Cut to size slabs Upto 200cm length and 60cm width
Toolkit
• Conversion Charts• Currency Converter• Harmony Codes• Terminologies• Weights & Measures
HARMONY CODES
Harmony Codes
An international goods classification system for describing cargo in international trade under a single commodity coding scheme. Developed under the auspices of the Customs Cooperations Council (CCC), an international Customs organization in Brussels, this code is a hierarchically structured product nomenclature containing approximately 5,000 headings and subheadings. It is organized into 99 chapters arranged into 22 sections.Sections encompass an industry; chapters encompass the various materials and products of the industry. The basic code contains 44 headings and 6 digit subheadings. Many countries add digits for Customs tariff and statistical purposes. In the US, duty rates will be 8 digit level; statistical suffixes will be at the 10 digit level. The Harmonized System (HS) is the current US tariff schedule (TSUSA) for imports and is the basis for the 10 digit Schedule B export code.English
HS Code
Description
2514.00.00
Slate, whether or not roughly trimmed or merely cut etc.
2515.11.00
Marble and travertine, crude or roughly trimmed
2515.12.00
Marble and travertine, merely cut by sawying or otherwise into blocks
2515.20.00
Ecaussine & other calcareous monumental or building stone; alabaster
2516.11.00
Granite, Crude or roughly trimmed (M3)
2516.12.00
Granite, merely cut, by sawing or otherwise, into blocks etc
6802.21.00
Monumental/building stone, cut/sawn flat or even
6802.22.00
Monumental/building stone, cut/sawn flat or even, other calcareous stone
6802.23.00
Monumental/building stone, cut/sawn flat or even, granite
6802.29.00
Monumental/building stone, cut/sawn flat or even, (nes)
6802.91.00
Worked monumental/building stone (nes) Marble, travertine, and alabaster
6802.92.00
Worked monumental/building stone (nes) Calcareous stone (nes)
6802.93.00
Worked monumental/building stone (nes) Granite
6802.99.00
Worked monumental/building stone (nes)
6803.00.00
Worked slate and articles of slate or of agglomerated slate
An international goods classification system for describing cargo in international trade under a single commodity coding scheme. Developed under the auspices of the Customs Cooperations Council (CCC), an international Customs organization in Brussels, this code is a hierarchically structured product nomenclature containing approximately 5,000 headings and subheadings. It is organized into 99 chapters arranged into 22 sections.Sections encompass an industry; chapters encompass the various materials and products of the industry. The basic code contains 44 headings and 6 digit subheadings. Many countries add digits for Customs tariff and statistical purposes. In the US, duty rates will be 8 digit level; statistical suffixes will be at the 10 digit level. The Harmonized System (HS) is the current US tariff schedule (TSUSA) for imports and is the basis for the 10 digit Schedule B export code.English
HS Code
Description
2514.00.00
Slate, whether or not roughly trimmed or merely cut etc.
2515.11.00
Marble and travertine, crude or roughly trimmed
2515.12.00
Marble and travertine, merely cut by sawying or otherwise into blocks
2515.20.00
Ecaussine & other calcareous monumental or building stone; alabaster
2516.11.00
Granite, Crude or roughly trimmed (M3)
2516.12.00
Granite, merely cut, by sawing or otherwise, into blocks etc
6802.21.00
Monumental/building stone, cut/sawn flat or even
6802.22.00
Monumental/building stone, cut/sawn flat or even, other calcareous stone
6802.23.00
Monumental/building stone, cut/sawn flat or even, granite
6802.29.00
Monumental/building stone, cut/sawn flat or even, (nes)
6802.91.00
Worked monumental/building stone (nes) Marble, travertine, and alabaster
6802.92.00
Worked monumental/building stone (nes) Calcareous stone (nes)
6802.93.00
Worked monumental/building stone (nes) Granite
6802.99.00
Worked monumental/building stone (nes)
6803.00.00
Worked slate and articles of slate or of agglomerated slate
STONE CARE AND MAINTENANCE
Stone Care & Maintenance
STONE MAINTENANCE GUIDE & STAIN MANAGEMENT:
Stone Procurement proceeds through four stage:
Selection / Design by architect
Stone supplier fabricates & delivers the material.
Proper stone installation & protection.
Establishing stone maintenance cycle properly.
Stone Maintenance cycle:
(Designing Proper three steps stone maintenance programme)There are three phases in stone maintenance cycle. These are;
STONE MAINTENANCE GUIDE & STAIN MANAGEMENT:
Stone Procurement proceeds through four stage:
Selection / Design by architect
Stone supplier fabricates & delivers the material.
Proper stone installation & protection.
Establishing stone maintenance cycle properly.
Stone Maintenance cycle:
(Designing Proper three steps stone maintenance programme)There are three phases in stone maintenance cycle. These are;
A.PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
a. Preventive Maintenance :
Protecting the interior of stone with Penetrating SEALERS;
Proper matting of entrance.
b. Daily Maintenance :
Dusting & sweeping with Vacuum or Broom;
Wet cleaning;
Repairing of cracks & Joints with glues / chemicals;
Powder or liquid polishing (if possible);
Reabsorbing STAINS with POULTICE powders .
Restoration:
Resurfacing the stone with a diamond abrasive program to remove scratches and abrasions;
Deep cleaning of pores of textured surface.
Preventive Maintenance :
SEALERS: Sealers are of two types;
Coating
Impregnators/ Penetrating sealers
Coatings : Coatings are sealers that place a sacrificial coating on the surface of the stone. This is a film that lies on the top of the stone acting as barrier to prevent water, oil or dirt from entering into pores of the stone. Coating sealers are usually acrylics, urethanes, epoxies and varnishes.
These are further categorised into two types; STRIPPABLES & PERMANENT
So, coating sealers are film-forming polymers, which are applied to floors to maintain physical barriers that isolate the stone surface from abrasions.
Advantages :
Economical and easy to apply.
Disadvantages:
Since most coatings are typically softer than the stone itself, they are usually scratched and scuff very easily & will show traffic patterns soon after application. So, reapplication after short intervals becomes necessary.
Coatings give unnatural, wave like or plastic look on natural stones.
Under UV light, this can turn yellow as time passes.
Some wax strippers can harm certain stones.
Moisture can be trapped below the stone. Thus coating can block breathing of natural stone.
Impregnator/ Penetrating Sealers : these are the microscopic balls of generally silicones, which attach themselves to the crevices inside the stone. These balls of silicones are negatively charged, which means they repel each other so that they are not clustered to become a big ball of silicone. Once attached they become permanent part of stone & give out a magnetic charge, which creates an invisible umbrella between balls. Thus balls becomes a shield when a much larger drop of liquid lands on them. This shield holds the liquid upside and prevents its penetration in the stone pores.
Advantages:
Impregnators do not change the appearance of stone.
Most impregnators don’t require frequent reapplication.
No effects of UV, as the impregnators are below the stone surface.
Some impregnators are hydrophobic or oilliophobic.
Low maintenance cost.
Disadvantages:
Initial cost is very high compared to coating.
Solvent-based impregnators are highly inflammable during application. Solvent-based impregnator produce high VOC (Volatile organic compounds) so these smells bad & harmful to environment.
Protecting the interior of stone with Penetrating SEALERS;
Proper matting of entrance.
b. Daily Maintenance :
Dusting & sweeping with Vacuum or Broom;
Wet cleaning;
Repairing of cracks & Joints with glues / chemicals;
Powder or liquid polishing (if possible);
Reabsorbing STAINS with POULTICE powders .
Restoration:
Resurfacing the stone with a diamond abrasive program to remove scratches and abrasions;
Deep cleaning of pores of textured surface.
Preventive Maintenance :
SEALERS: Sealers are of two types;
Coating
Impregnators/ Penetrating sealers
Coatings : Coatings are sealers that place a sacrificial coating on the surface of the stone. This is a film that lies on the top of the stone acting as barrier to prevent water, oil or dirt from entering into pores of the stone. Coating sealers are usually acrylics, urethanes, epoxies and varnishes.
These are further categorised into two types; STRIPPABLES & PERMANENT
So, coating sealers are film-forming polymers, which are applied to floors to maintain physical barriers that isolate the stone surface from abrasions.
Advantages :
Economical and easy to apply.
Disadvantages:
Since most coatings are typically softer than the stone itself, they are usually scratched and scuff very easily & will show traffic patterns soon after application. So, reapplication after short intervals becomes necessary.
Coatings give unnatural, wave like or plastic look on natural stones.
Under UV light, this can turn yellow as time passes.
Some wax strippers can harm certain stones.
Moisture can be trapped below the stone. Thus coating can block breathing of natural stone.
Impregnator/ Penetrating Sealers : these are the microscopic balls of generally silicones, which attach themselves to the crevices inside the stone. These balls of silicones are negatively charged, which means they repel each other so that they are not clustered to become a big ball of silicone. Once attached they become permanent part of stone & give out a magnetic charge, which creates an invisible umbrella between balls. Thus balls becomes a shield when a much larger drop of liquid lands on them. This shield holds the liquid upside and prevents its penetration in the stone pores.
Advantages:
Impregnators do not change the appearance of stone.
Most impregnators don’t require frequent reapplication.
No effects of UV, as the impregnators are below the stone surface.
Some impregnators are hydrophobic or oilliophobic.
Low maintenance cost.
Disadvantages:
Initial cost is very high compared to coating.
Solvent-based impregnators are highly inflammable during application. Solvent-based impregnator produce high VOC (Volatile organic compounds) so these smells bad & harmful to environment.
B.DAILY MAINTENANCE
b. Daily Maintenance :
· Dusting & sweeping with Vacuum or Broom;
· Wet cleaning;
· Repairing of cracks & Joints with glues / chemicals;
· Powder or liquid polishing (if possible);
· Reabsorbing STAINS with POULTICE powders .
Cleaning chemicals:
· Soaps: Vegetable oil based soaps are best for natural stone cleaning. As they are user & environment friendly. The residues that soap tends to leave behind can be utilised as natural dressing, which acts as preventive stone management.
· Detergents: Detergents are water-soluble, so they are pH based & so should be used only after expert’s advice.
· Abrasives: Abrasive may be combined with soap or detergent. For scouring a surface, specially honed, abrasives remains thin layers from surface.
· Bleach: Bleaches are oxidising agents (generally oxygen) & are useful in stains removal.
· Dusting & sweeping with Vacuum or Broom;
· Wet cleaning;
· Repairing of cracks & Joints with glues / chemicals;
· Powder or liquid polishing (if possible);
· Reabsorbing STAINS with POULTICE powders .
Cleaning chemicals:
· Soaps: Vegetable oil based soaps are best for natural stone cleaning. As they are user & environment friendly. The residues that soap tends to leave behind can be utilised as natural dressing, which acts as preventive stone management.
· Detergents: Detergents are water-soluble, so they are pH based & so should be used only after expert’s advice.
· Abrasives: Abrasive may be combined with soap or detergent. For scouring a surface, specially honed, abrasives remains thin layers from surface.
· Bleach: Bleaches are oxidising agents (generally oxygen) & are useful in stains removal.
C.RESTORATION
c. Restoration:
Resurfacing the stone with a diamond abrasive program to remove scratches and abrasions;
Deep cleaning of pores of textured surface.
STAIN MANAGEMENT:
As we are talking about stain management; the first thing comes to mind is “Why stones are stained ?? The answer is stones are natural alkalis (Hydroxides i.e., OH) and so are dirt & soil. So, stones and dirt get attracted to each other, often making cleaning very difficult.
The other question, which arises in our mind, is “ Can we clean our natural stone floors with chemicals?” The answer is a strict NO. We should use these cleaners after an expert’s advice only. Natural stones should be treated carefully and gently.
First one should understand the Basic facts about stones and their classification. Secondly, one should understand the chemicals with which you should clean or treat your stone tops. Most stones used today are sensitive to both acidic and alkali cleaners. The reason is the composition of stones, as the stones are alkalies. Acidic chemicals burn them by dissolving the bonding agents that keep them together. Use of alkalic chemicals will deteriorate the stone gradually. So, Neutral cleaners having pH value near 7 are the best choice for cleaning stones. We will talk about it in details under the heading
STAIN MANAGEMENT.
STAIN REMOVAL:
To restore the glass & shine of stone surface an effective stain removal programme should be followed.
STAIN REMOVAL GUIDE:
Natural stones are generally porous materials. This porosity is the main reason of Stain on the surface of stones. Surprisingly, this very porosity helps in the removal of stains.
Understanding the Stain is important. As we know that everything in this world exist because of chemical reactions. (Existence of U & I is also because of some chemical reactions). Staining of stone is nothing but patch because of chemical reaction & reversal of this chemical reaction is removal of the stain. This is the basic concept of stain and stain removal. So, if a stone has absorbed a stain we have to reabsorb it into some other material. This different material is what we call as POULTICE. A poultice can be made with powdered whiting & hydrogen peroxide or a chemical reducing agent; depending on nature of stain.
TYPES OF STAINS:
Oil based Stains: Greece, tar, food stains & cooking oil.
Organic Stains: Fruit juices, tobacco, cosmetic, coffee & tea.
Ink Stain: Magic marker or Pen Ink.
Metal Stains: Iron (rusty), copper, bronze or Aluminium.
Biological Stains: Algae, Lichens etc.
Resurfacing the stone with a diamond abrasive program to remove scratches and abrasions;
Deep cleaning of pores of textured surface.
STAIN MANAGEMENT:
As we are talking about stain management; the first thing comes to mind is “Why stones are stained ?? The answer is stones are natural alkalis (Hydroxides i.e., OH) and so are dirt & soil. So, stones and dirt get attracted to each other, often making cleaning very difficult.
The other question, which arises in our mind, is “ Can we clean our natural stone floors with chemicals?” The answer is a strict NO. We should use these cleaners after an expert’s advice only. Natural stones should be treated carefully and gently.
First one should understand the Basic facts about stones and their classification. Secondly, one should understand the chemicals with which you should clean or treat your stone tops. Most stones used today are sensitive to both acidic and alkali cleaners. The reason is the composition of stones, as the stones are alkalies. Acidic chemicals burn them by dissolving the bonding agents that keep them together. Use of alkalic chemicals will deteriorate the stone gradually. So, Neutral cleaners having pH value near 7 are the best choice for cleaning stones. We will talk about it in details under the heading
STAIN MANAGEMENT.
STAIN REMOVAL:
To restore the glass & shine of stone surface an effective stain removal programme should be followed.
STAIN REMOVAL GUIDE:
Natural stones are generally porous materials. This porosity is the main reason of Stain on the surface of stones. Surprisingly, this very porosity helps in the removal of stains.
Understanding the Stain is important. As we know that everything in this world exist because of chemical reactions. (Existence of U & I is also because of some chemical reactions). Staining of stone is nothing but patch because of chemical reaction & reversal of this chemical reaction is removal of the stain. This is the basic concept of stain and stain removal. So, if a stone has absorbed a stain we have to reabsorb it into some other material. This different material is what we call as POULTICE. A poultice can be made with powdered whiting & hydrogen peroxide or a chemical reducing agent; depending on nature of stain.
TYPES OF STAINS:
Oil based Stains: Greece, tar, food stains & cooking oil.
Organic Stains: Fruit juices, tobacco, cosmetic, coffee & tea.
Ink Stain: Magic marker or Pen Ink.
Metal Stains: Iron (rusty), copper, bronze or Aluminium.
Biological Stains: Algae, Lichens etc.
THE PRIMARY STEPS OF STAINS REMOVAL
THE PRIMARY STEPS OF STAIN REMOVAL (FIRST AID)
Identify the stain type.
Any spill should be cleaned as soon as possible. Bolt spill with paper towel or clean rag. At this stage it is important only to bolt (Pls take care: wiping should be avoided.).
Use only cold water & stone soap or a natural cleaner. Rinse the area several times. Most of the stains will disappear. If still present, stain will be removed by applying chemical Poultices.
Consult a stone restoration specialist or your stone supplier if in doubt or otherwise go ahead with Poultices.
Chemicals should be used to remove stains only as the last resort, as natural or soft environment friendly soap cleaning method is best suited for natural stone surface. Always perform a test in inconspicuous area first to determine the result of chemical cleaning.
Chemicals, which are used as stain removers, can be classified in three categories:
Solvents (No pH determination): e.g., Mineral spirits, Xylene or Chlorinated solvents. Solvents dissolve grease, chewing gum, lipstick etc.
Bleaches (Oxidants): e.g., Hydrogen Peroxide, Ammonia, and Acetic acid etc. Bleaches discolour stains.
Absorbents: e.g., blotting paper, Chalk, Powder telcom etc. These absorb fresh oil & grease stains.
POULTICE : As we have used this word so many times, its necessary to know; What is Poultice ???
As we know the stains are absorbed in the stone surface. Poultice is a material apart from chemicals, which is used to reabsorb stain from the stone surface.
Different Poultice materials are;
Chalk (whiting, available easily in hardware shops)
Methyl cellulose
Talk
Sepiolite (hydrous magnesium silicate)
Diatomaceous Earth Clay (Fullers earth)
Identify the stain type.
Any spill should be cleaned as soon as possible. Bolt spill with paper towel or clean rag. At this stage it is important only to bolt (Pls take care: wiping should be avoided.).
Use only cold water & stone soap or a natural cleaner. Rinse the area several times. Most of the stains will disappear. If still present, stain will be removed by applying chemical Poultices.
Consult a stone restoration specialist or your stone supplier if in doubt or otherwise go ahead with Poultices.
Chemicals should be used to remove stains only as the last resort, as natural or soft environment friendly soap cleaning method is best suited for natural stone surface. Always perform a test in inconspicuous area first to determine the result of chemical cleaning.
Chemicals, which are used as stain removers, can be classified in three categories:
Solvents (No pH determination): e.g., Mineral spirits, Xylene or Chlorinated solvents. Solvents dissolve grease, chewing gum, lipstick etc.
Bleaches (Oxidants): e.g., Hydrogen Peroxide, Ammonia, and Acetic acid etc. Bleaches discolour stains.
Absorbents: e.g., blotting paper, Chalk, Powder telcom etc. These absorb fresh oil & grease stains.
POULTICE : As we have used this word so many times, its necessary to know; What is Poultice ???
As we know the stains are absorbed in the stone surface. Poultice is a material apart from chemicals, which is used to reabsorb stain from the stone surface.
Different Poultice materials are;
Chalk (whiting, available easily in hardware shops)
Methyl cellulose
Talk
Sepiolite (hydrous magnesium silicate)
Diatomaceous Earth Clay (Fullers earth)
APPLYING THE POULTICE
Applying the Poultice (final solution)
1)Clean the stained area with cold water & stone soap. Remember to bolt rather than wipe.
2)Prewet the stained area with a little water. Prewetting fills the pores of stone with water; so isolating the stain & accelerating the removal by the chemicals.
3)Prepare the poultice. If a powder is to be used, premix the powder & chemicals of choice into a thick paste. If a paper poultice is to be used, soak the paper into chemical. Lift the paper out of the chemical until it stops dripping.
4)Apply this paste only on the effected area & make a layer of about ¼ inch thick.
5)Allow the paste to sit for 12-24 hours after covering it with plastic sheet. Drying may take more time.
6)Remove poultice from the stain, rinse with distilled water & dry with clean rag.
7)If stain is not removed completely then repeat the same procedure again.
1)Clean the stained area with cold water & stone soap. Remember to bolt rather than wipe.
2)Prewet the stained area with a little water. Prewetting fills the pores of stone with water; so isolating the stain & accelerating the removal by the chemicals.
3)Prepare the poultice. If a powder is to be used, premix the powder & chemicals of choice into a thick paste. If a paper poultice is to be used, soak the paper into chemical. Lift the paper out of the chemical until it stops dripping.
4)Apply this paste only on the effected area & make a layer of about ¼ inch thick.
5)Allow the paste to sit for 12-24 hours after covering it with plastic sheet. Drying may take more time.
6)Remove poultice from the stain, rinse with distilled water & dry with clean rag.
7)If stain is not removed completely then repeat the same procedure again.
QUICK REFRENCE QUIDE FOR POULTICE FOR DIFFERENT STAINS
QUICK REFERENCE QUIDE FOR POULTICE FOR DIFFERENT STAINS;
S.NO. -STAIN TYPE -POULTICE TO BE USED
1- RUST -POWDER + OXALIC ACID + WATER
(REPOLISHING WILL BE NECESSARY)
2 -INK, MAGIC MARKER -POWDER +MINERALSPIRITS OR METHYLENE CHLORIDE
3- PAINT (OIL BASED) -POWDER + MINERAL SPIRITS
4 -PAINT (WATER BASED) -POWDER +COMMERCIAL PAINT REMOVER(ETHYLENE)
5- OIL (FOOD)- POWDER + AMMONIA
6 -COFEE /TEA- POWDER+HYDEROGEN PEROXIDE(BLEACHING POWDER)
7 -METAL SERATES
LIKE COPPER &
BRONZE -POWDER + AMONIUM CHLORIDE
8 -KETCHUP OR
MUSTARD- POWDER + AMONIA
9 -FIRE, TOBACCO ETC- POWDER + TRI-SODIUM PHOSPHATE (TSP)
+ CHLORINATED LIME
10 -URINE -CHALK + SODIUM CARBONATE
(OR TRISODIUM)
11- IODINE -POWDER + ALCOHAL
12 -BLOOD STAINS- POWDER + TSP
13- CHEWING GUM -CLAY + TRI-CHLOROEHTENE
14 -GREASE- CLAY + TSP
Linterns are available in any sizes & finishes on specific orders.
S.NO. -STAIN TYPE -POULTICE TO BE USED
1- RUST -POWDER + OXALIC ACID + WATER
(REPOLISHING WILL BE NECESSARY)
2 -INK, MAGIC MARKER -POWDER +MINERALSPIRITS OR METHYLENE CHLORIDE
3- PAINT (OIL BASED) -POWDER + MINERAL SPIRITS
4 -PAINT (WATER BASED) -POWDER +COMMERCIAL PAINT REMOVER(ETHYLENE)
5- OIL (FOOD)- POWDER + AMMONIA
6 -COFEE /TEA- POWDER+HYDEROGEN PEROXIDE(BLEACHING POWDER)
7 -METAL SERATES
LIKE COPPER &
BRONZE -POWDER + AMONIUM CHLORIDE
8 -KETCHUP OR
MUSTARD- POWDER + AMONIA
9 -FIRE, TOBACCO ETC- POWDER + TRI-SODIUM PHOSPHATE (TSP)
+ CHLORINATED LIME
10 -URINE -CHALK + SODIUM CARBONATE
(OR TRISODIUM)
11- IODINE -POWDER + ALCOHAL
12 -BLOOD STAINS- POWDER + TSP
13- CHEWING GUM -CLAY + TRI-CHLOROEHTENE
14 -GREASE- CLAY + TSP
Linterns are available in any sizes & finishes on specific orders.
REMARK
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